RISULTATI RICERCA

Souvenir d’Italie is the title of the image-document here presented: an album at Nazional Museum Alinari of Photography, dated 1871, and composed by 56 photos, that ideally realized a classic itinerary by foreign visitors in Italy. We try to analyze it comparing with other albums of the same kind, with the catalogues of the most important photographs of that time, and also with coeval sources of different type, as guides for visitors, or magazines as Le Tour Du Monde. The latter was an illustrated review the offered to its reader the opportunity of virtual travel in many parts of the world, in Italy too.

This article examines the transformations of tourist places due to the changes occurred in elite tourism during the second half of the 19th century. It focuses on Liguria, the well-known Italian Riviera, which, during the 19th century, emerged as a leading tourist region in Europe. In particular it sheds light on the construction of the image of fashionable resorts, by examining the role played by three factors: places for social relations (grand hotels, kursaals, etc.), entertainments and social events (such as Carnival), and specialized magazines aimed at tourists, the so called journal mondain. It analyses how these elements interact with each other and argues that all of them were crucial in determining the success of the most important Ligurian resorts on the international tourist market.

The essay explores some aspects of cultural sociability in which foreigners were involved in Pisa in the fi rst half of the nineteenth century. Pisa was a small town, but since the beginning of the nineteenth century, it became a popular destination for a good number of travellers, attracted by the artistic beauty, the mild climate and the possibility of thermal therapies. In this context it seems unusual the shortage of social and cultural opportunities except for the visit to the historical complex of Piazza dei Miracoli and the social events at the Casino of Nobility or at the literary salons of the Pisan high society, however, reserved for a very small group of foreigners. One aim of this paper is to underline the partial attempts made to widen the cultural activities in Pisa at that time, such as the founding of the English monthly magazine The Ausonian (1830), the establishment of the Pisan Book Society (1844), a circulating library linked to the Anglican Church of Pisa, a quite large community in that period, and initiatives related to the Convention of Italian Scientists in 1839, which brought in the Tuscan town many Italian and foreign scholars, often accompanied by their families.

For European travellers visiting Venice during the nineteenth century, theaters, libraries, archives and museums, are spaces for meetings based on the history and art of Venice. Connected to the terraferma by a railway bridge in 1850, the city - ruled by the Austrian Empire since the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) , developed its own balneary potential. The exceptional properties of lagoonal waters revealed by medical publications draws, until the end of the century, thousands of European patients longing to enjoy the benefi cial effects of the «Venetian cure» in the lagoon. Once denounced as unhealthy, Venice’s water is now extolled and appreciated for its healing properties. With the advent of modern tourism in the middle of the century, bathing as a source of delight progressively supplants bathing for therapeutical effects in the fl oating establishments placed all along the Grand Canal, and in the main hotels of the city.

This article questions the role played by the Grand Ducal Florence as a destination for travel and stays of foreign people in the Forties of the Nineteenth century. The starting point is a list of foreign guests who attended cultural events at the home of the Genevan merchant-editor Giovan Pietro Vieusseux at Florence. It analyses the geographic origins, the socio-professional status, the reasons and trajectories of these stays abroad in order to highlight the changes taking place in the cultural tradition of travelling to Italy in the Europe of the national states. Moreover, it focuses on the effects of these stays in terms of bilateral trade, commercial and cultural transfers between the places of departure and the places of travel destination.

"Whoever has no other ties in life should come and live in Rome. There they will fi nd, for society, a land that nurtures refl ection", writes Chateaubriand in his letter to Fontanes in 1804. Beyond the Romantic topos of Rome as a place of seclusion, as an intimate setting for poetic meditations, beyond the deep-rooted liberal tradition of anti-Roman feelings and the indifference of Italian historiographers to Roman sociability, more recent studies, from the 1990ies on, have underlined the necessity not to restrict the cultural life of such a cosmopolitan city to writers and foreign artists, bringing to light the constant exchanges between the ruling classes, the patriarchate and international elites. Through the study of individual cases, this article examines the intellectual and aesthetic vitality which characterized cultural institutions (such as academies and universities) as well as more informal meeting places (such as salons and cafés), and focuses on the slow transition from an aristocratic social life to a bourgeois sociability, in the European context of the extension of travels and tourism to a wider public.

At the beginning of the nineteenth century Naples consolidated its reputation as a center of culture, developed during the eighteenth century, with new forms of attractions, spread by the romantic culture. In the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, during the decades of the Bourbon restoration, the forms of sociability, the attractions and the cultural opportunities for foreign guests - which during the eighteenth century were primarily organized in private circles or amongst the aristocrats - are no longer valid. The new travellers have different expectations and request holidays which guarantee services and freedom of movement. However Naples is governed by a reactionary police establishment. From the 1840’s foreigners began leaving the capital and heading around the Gulf. In Sorrento, the islands of Capri and Ischia they found a more liberal ambient combined with new attractions, sociability and culture.

According to J. L. Austin, philosopher theorist of speech acts, and subsequent critical literature, Perlocution - one of three levels of speech acts - is less important than Locution and Illocution from a philosophical standpoint. Intentionality, conventionality, possibility of classification and linguistic nature are some of the factors that underlie this view. The purpose of this paper is to show both that perlocution is not devoid of such elements and that illocution does not always include them. Thus, for the author, the philosophical nature of perlocution confirms the unitary character of speech acts and supports a genuine pragmatic vision of the linguistic theory on performative utterances, also going beyond Austin’s point of view.

Both living in London for more than twenty years (1849- 1873), Karl Marx and J.S. Mill commented extensively on the features and contradictions of American society and politics. In particular, the two thinkers devoted a substantial number of letters, articles and systematic writings to the issue of slavery and to the events of the Civil War at the beginning of the 1860s. The literature has never compared their philosophical-political questionings of post-Tocquevillian America, nor has it investigated the continuities in and ruptures between their analyses of the slavery-based American economy and society. Consequently, the author focuses specifically on their American writings in an attempt to cast light on some significant similarities between the two philosophers when addressing their European readers on the American Civil War and the central issue of slavery. Although embedded within different moral and political languages, their understandings of slavery pursued a twin goal: to reveal how relevant the categories of "race" and "class" vis-à-vis State sovereignty and the development of modern democracy had become since Tocqueville, and to point out the very close linkage between the American events and the fate of Europe as far as labour movements were concerned. From such a perspective, in the author’s view, they urged their European readers to go beyond the military façade of the Civil War and develop a broader theoretical perspective on what was really at stake on the other side of the Atlantic.

The essay provides a reconstruction of the argument on moral progress expounded by Kant in §§ 1-7 of the Second Part of The Conflict of the Faculties (An Old Question Raised Again: Is the Human Race Constantly Progressing?). The reconstruction is carried out from a systematic perspective, that is considering the argument within the relationship between nature and freedom as it is developed in previous historical writings (especially in the Idea for a Universal History from a Cosmopolitan Point of View) and in the Critique of the Power of Judgement. The argument is shown to be the only one that can meet the conditions implied by the "nomothetic of freedom" described in the third Critique (§ 87) and, also, the only one that is able to justify Kant’s thesis, which appeared after the French Revolution, that the institution of the "rightful condition" (Rechtszustand) should necessarily be the result of a moral end. A further confirmation of the relevance of the argument is given by the analysis of the transition from the status naturalis to the status civilis in the Metaphysical First Principles of the Doctrine of Right (§§ 41-42).